What are the stages of development of Coptic Catechism through the ages?

The answer

It is worth laying out the circumstances through which the Coptic Church has endured, from her foundation till the present day, that we may grasp the truth of her teachings, and benefit from her long experience over twenty centuries.

Our Coptic Church has continuously faced persecution since the middle of the first century and until the present time. Thus, Mrs. Butcher, a Professor of History at Oxford University, expressed her amazement when she stated that the endurance of the Copts to this day is one of the wonders of the world.

In the eighth century B. C., Isaiah the prophet anticipated the Coptic Church and wrote with the spirit of prophecy of her marvelous beginnings.

The Church suffered many persecutions, even from fellow Christians. Such were the persecutions by the Emperors of Constantinople who persecuted her and appointed patriarchs with the power and authority to continually oppress even the monks in their monasteries and deserts, pressuring them to accept the Tome of Leo.

We are indeed thankful to God who allowed our Egypt, blessed by Isaiah the prophet, to endure these long-lasting periods of extremely bitter persecution. And yet, they have afforded us opportunities to praise the Crucified One, together with the Apostle Paul, saying, “I have been crucified with Christ; it is no longer I who live, but Christ lives in me” (Gal. 2:20).

A friend once showed me a letter that someone had sent to several influential companies and personalities in America. In it, he asked for their aid to further his missionary work in Egypt, thinking that he would present Christ to the Copts, who, although they produce martyrs, are a dead Church, ignorant of Christ (in his opinion)! We need not defend our Church. For the Day of the Lord is at hand and many simple martyrs, shepherds, and pure theologians will be revealed as a heavenly bride, sitting at the right hand of the King of Kings!

The trials that have befallen the Church through the ages have contributed to revealing her living faith, her Orthodox teachings, and the work of the Holy Trinity within her. The Church did not deviate to pursue worldly glories or transient politics, but rather fixed her eyes on the second coming of the Lord on the clouds.

Stage 1: Catechism in The Apostolic Age.

a. The chief event of the first century was St. Mark the Apostle’s evangelism of Egypt,

the land which the Lord Jesus Himself blessed when He took refuge from Herod (Matt. 2:13). St. Mark the Apostle ordained Annianus as bishop of Alexandria. The heart of the Church was preoccupied with preaching the gospel of salvation, and revealing God’s love to all humankind, and not solely to any particular group of people.

Christianity began in Egypt with a simple, yet very deep encounter.³ Annianus the cobbler cried out, saying: “O the One God!” when he pierced his hand with an awl as he repaired St. Mark’s shoes. St. Mark the Apostle healed Annianus’ hand in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. Thus, he gave witness regarding the One God whom Annianus invoked, though he did not know Him. St. Mark spoke to him about the God who not only heals our bodies but our entire human nature through Jesus Christ, His incarnate Word. Annianus embraced Christianity, and was St. Mark ordained him as the first bishop of Alexandria.

There are two points, here, that I should like to highlight:

i. St. Mark did not, at that time, attack Egyptian pagan worship, but on the

contrary, he used Annianus’ words, “O the One God,” as the starting point for preaching the Gospel of Truth. His approach resembles that of St. Paul the

Apostle in Athens, who said, “the One whom you worship without knowing, Him I proclaim to you” (Acts 17:23). And again, he said, “for in Him we live, and move and have our being, as also some of your own poets have said, ‘For we are also His offspring’” (Acts 17:28). The Alexandrian Fathers followed in the footsteps of St. Mark as they preached the unchanging Gospel of Truth to the Egyptians and to the bearers of Hellenic wisdom (the Greeks) in Alexandria. They spoke simply to the simple, and in philosophical language to the philosophers.

ii. St. Mark healed Annianus’ wound in the name of the Lord Jesus and seized

the opportunity as the starting point for his preaching of the gospel. Therefore, he did not reveal God merely as an idea which a person might believe, but as the Savior who heals all of humanity and saves it. This is the foundational principle of Alexandrian theology until this present day. It is a theology of salvation (soteriology): we do not know God through dry theoretical discussion, but through His saving works, whereby He grants us new knowledge, new life, and immortality.

Truly the seed St. Mark planted in our theological soil has produced fruits through the ages. One of those fruits is the close relationship between theological understanding and practical salvation. God bestows knowledge upon us, yet not in isolation from salvation. This is clearly manifest in the theology of St. Clement of Alexandria who presents Jesus Christ as the divine instructor (Paedagogus) and as a physician. He calls Him, “the all-sufficient Physician of humanity.”⁴ In other words, for St. Clement, our knowledge of God is inseparable from our salvation, as he clearly writes: “It is the will of God that we should attain the knowledge of God, which is our pathway to immortality.”⁵ Again he writes, “the Word of God became a man, so that you may learn from a man how man may become god.”⁶ By this we understand why the incarnate Word of God did not speak to us in theological terms, nor lay out for us a formula of Trinitarian faith; but in simplicity, declared the Holy Trinity to us through His saving works.

b. At this time, the philosophical School of Alexandria founded by Ptolemy was

flourishing, along with the largest library in the East, as well as Jewish schools. It was thus necessary for a Christian School of Alexandria to be established. It was the opinion of St. Jerome that such a school was founded by St. Mark.⁷ Many scholars consider it to be the first Christian school in the world.

Stage 2: The flourishing of the School of Alexandria in the second century.

The writings of the Scholar Athenagoras, Saints Pantaenus and Clement, and the Scholar Origen — the deans of the Catechetical School of Alexandria in the second century — reveal the curricula of the school at that time and its teaching, which included:

a. Concern with interpreting the Word of God. Pantaenus wrote a commentary on

the whole Bible, although only a few small quotations from it have come down to us.

Origen the scholar is considered prince of Biblical interpretation. He divides Biblical interpretation into three methods:

i. Allegorical or Symbolic interpretation: He often exaggerated his usage of this

method to the extent that he thought that every single word in the Bible has an allegorical meaning.

ii. Moral interpretation: the Bible leads us to live in Christ Jesus.

iii. Literal or Historical interpretation.

We will discuss these three methods of interpretation later and the dangers of overusing any one of them.

b. Athenagoras’ Plea for Christians: where he mounts a defense against the

accusations levelled against the Christians. In this defense he describes the loftiness of the Christian faith. He used his apologetic writings as an opportunity to preach the faith to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (161–180 A. D.) and his co- emperor and son, Commodus.

c. In his discourse regarding the Resurrection of the Dead, Athenagoras used

philosophical proofs, since it was addressed to philosophers who rejected the resurrection of the body.

d. The principal writings of St. Clement of Alexandria also indicate the School’s

curriculum:

i. Protrepticus (Exhortation to the Heathen), where the Logos, the “Word of

God,” calls humankind to be saved from the clutches of paganism, through faith. Here he highlights the person of Christ as Savior and Guide.

ii. Paedagogus (The Instructor or Tutor), where Christ urges believers to live a

better life, He being the heavenly Guide leading them to heavenly things.

iii. Stromata (Miscellanies), which is incomplete, but in which he stresses that

the Christian philosopher can find everything he needs in the Gospel. St. Clement of Alexandria is considered to be among the first to link philosophy to faith. In his view, if God provided the Law to the Jews to lead them to the

Savior, so He also provided whatever is true in philosophy to lead the Gentiles to the Savior.

In this way, the saint reveals to us the Christian program of evangelism. We ought not to attack others, but in love and wisdom, we should ask God to teach us how to present His Word, which is capable of satisfying souls and elevating them so that they may taste heaven.

Stage 3: The Alexandrian Fathers and the age of the ecumenical councils.

Whoever studies the first Ecumenical Councils encounters the Alexandrians as Christian thinkers who are heroes of faith and leading thinkers on an ecumenical level. The School of Alexandria played an important role in supporting the leaders of the Church of Alexandria as well as those among the congregation who were passionate about the orthodoxy of the faith and about witnessing to the Gospel of Christ at every opportunity. The Church of Alexandria was not concerned with engaging in temporal politics. Alexandria lived within the Roman Empire, under the rule of Rome, and after that, under the rule of Byzantium, until the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs. What supported them was their spiritual, pious, theological, and biblical focus. The School of Alexandria, with its strength of spirit, deep theological thought, and biblical studies, was the secret behind the strength of the Alexandrian Fathers.

The Alexandrian Fathers did not covet positions of power for personal benefit. Rather, it was the opening up of their hearts full of divine love and the depth of their studies that attracted many people to the School of Alexandria, and to the Egyptian deserts, where they learned their theology and were trained in the ascetic life under the guidance of the monks of Egypt. Since the dawn of Christianity, the Copts were known for their zeal for the orthodox faith, and they played a positive role in resolving many theological issues, both in the East and the West. They did not interfere in the problems of other Churches, nor did they intrude upon them; but with a spirit of love and unity, and through genuinely fraternal relations, they were invited to resolve such problems, or responded through the exchange of messages.⁸

When the emperors accepted the Christian faith and the waves of persecution calmed down, heretics found abundant opportunities to spread their dangerous thought; particularly Arius, Nestorius, Eutyches, and Apollinaris, etc. It became necessary for the Alexandrian Fathers to play their positive role in the patient efforts to restore the heretics to the true faith; though, not at the expense of the Church’s biblical faith. Therefore, the Alexandrian Church participated in the three ecumenical councils.

a) The First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325 AD.

Here, the four sees of Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria opposed the heresy of Arius, which denied the divinity of the Lord Christ. The council introduced the creed referred to by most scholars as the “Athanasian Creed,“ referring to Pope Athanasius the Apostolic of Alexandria. Most recent modern catechisms highlight this creed and summarize it for the general public and for the new generations, as well as for the scholars.

“From a very early stage, the Church of Alexandria appreciated the value of the theological contributions of St. Athanasius to the definition and formulation of the content of the faith, and the preservation of the apostolic tradition received by the Church from the disciples of the Lord Himself; and, in fact, his ‘unconquerable and apostolic knowledge,’ as St. Cyril of Alexandria described him.⁹ The high esteem of the twentieth Pope of Alexandria is evident from the fact that the Church describes him in her liturgical texts as ‘the apostolic’.”¹⁰

I have written elsewhere about Pope Athanasius and Arianism, and the testimony of Western scholars regarding him¹¹.

b) The Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 A. D.

The second council focused on the heresy of Macedonius, Patriarch of Constantinople, who claimed that the Holy Spirit is created. The council also looked into the heresy of Apollinaris who, in defending the divinity of Christ, thought that the Word took flesh without a human soul. He thought that the human soul has a distinct human will, and thus Christ had two wills: the divine will and the human will, meaning that He was two persons. Pope Timothy of Alexandria, along with Nectarius, Patriarch of Constantinople; Gregory the Theologian, and Gregory of Nyssa took part in this council. The historian Sozomen mentioned that the number of bishops who participated was around 150 bishops, led by Timothy, the bishop of the See of Alexandria.¹²

c) The Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus¹³

The third council was held in the year 431 A. D. under the leadership of St. Cyril of Alexandria. Two hundred bishops participated in it to try Nestorius, who employed the term Christotokos (mother or giver of birth to Christ) to the Virgin Mary, thus differentiating the human Jesus born from Mary from the Son of God who dwelt in him. He thought that there were two distinct persons in Christ: the son of Mary and the Son of God. These two persons were not united essentially or hypostatically, but merely morally or in character. Thus, Christ is not to be called God but “Theophorus” or “God-bearer,” just as we would call the saints because of the work of divine grace in them. As a result, Mary is not the mother of God, but the mother of the human Jesus in whom the divinity dwelt. Nestorius and his followers criticized the Magi for their worship of the Child Jesus and held that His divinity was parted from Him at the moment of crucifixion.

What impact did the three Councils have on the Catechism of the Christian Sees or the Universal Church?

All the apostolic Churches — whether Orthodox Chalcedonians, non-Chalcedonians or the Roman Catholic Church — consider these three ecumenical councils as being responsible for clarifying the faith, especially with regard to the Holy Trinity; and for the defense against many of the heresies that appeared in this period. Although there were some small disputes over the language of some expressions, these councils carried on their discussions in a spirit of love and holy zeal for the faith.

As for the Council of Chalcedon in the year 451 A. D., some apostolic Churches hold that it did not introduce anything new, but only explained and clarified the first three ecumenical councils. Our unofficial and official dialogues with the apostolic Chalcedonian Orthodox Churches and the Catholic Church in the late twentieth century brought more openness. All of them came to realize that we are not Eutychians as they had thought; that is, we do not proclaim that His humanity was annihilated within His divinity.

Thus, we achieved positive results together with our Orthodox Chalcedonian brethren.

I recall, for example, that in the first official meeting between the two families, the Chalcedonians refused to call us “Orthodox,” insisting instead on referring to us as the “Ancient Eastern Churches.” After discussions filled with love, the following occurred:

First: After many years of dialogue with a Greek theologian, I asked him: “Do you remember the day when you refused to call us Orthodox?” He smiled and said: “We feel a sense of unity with you, perhaps even more than that which we feel among ourselves, between Orthodox Chalcedonians.”

Second: A well-known priest and dear friend took the initiative of supervising the doctoral thesis for some of Copts in England. He would answer every person who accused St. Dioscorus with heresy by saying: “I have the proceedings of the Council of Chalcedon in the Greek language. They witness to the fact that this St. Dioscorus was not accused of heresy, but of insulting the Pope of Rome.”

Third: When the two Orthodox families opened up in the spirit of mutual love, whenever this father would walk by, some Chalcedonians would whisper to one another that the defender of the Coptic Church had come.

Fourth: I remember that in the spirit of love, after the convening of one of the sessions with the two families, a Greek Professor, Dr. Phidas, returned to his university in Greece and asked his Coptic students to stand. And he said before all the students, “I am proud of the Copts, and I rejoice that they study with us. They have a special place in my heart.”

In our recent conferences and gatherings we have lived and experienced a spirit of love and unity, whether in our practical work or our spiritual aspect.

Stage 4: The Council of Chalcedon and Coptic catechism.

In the second half of the twentieth century, God granted to many a passion for unity between the Churches, on the basis of sincere love and the orthodox teaching. A group of scholars from the Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian parties undertook to study the proceedings of the sessions of the Council of Chalcedon. In our yearning for sincere love in Christ Jesus, while holding fast to the orthodoxy of our faith, we will not talk of the stance the Pope of Rome took against the Pope of Alexandria. The Popes of Alexandria played a leading role in the first three ecumenical councils and were well-respected by the emperors, while the Popes of Rome were content with only sending delegates and sometimes sending no one. Nonetheless, the See of Rome cherishes the first three ecumenical councils.

The dialogue between the Churches prompted me to present our theology by publishing relevant articles and books both in English and Arabic, including:

a. The Terms Physis and Hypostasis in the Early Church.¹⁴

b. Christology (The Nature of Christ).¹⁵

c. I devoted a chapter to St. Dioscorus in the book The Coptic Orthodox Church as a

Church of Erudition & Theology.¹⁶

An Indian theologian¹⁷ published his doctoral thesis in English in which he re-evaluates the Council of Chalcedon. It has also been translated into Arabic. He quotes excerpts from certain Orthodox Chalcedonian and Western scholars and churchmen who argue that certain expressions found in the Tome of Leo could be understood as leaning towards Nestorianism, if read in isolation.

I am not really concerned, here, with broadly defending the Coptic and Syrian Churches from the persecution they suffered in being placed under the authority of Melkite (i.e., appointed by the emperor) patriarchs, who were also given secular powers to persecute the faithful, leading to many being killed. Rather, it will suffice to present an extremely concise rectification of the accusations levelled against St. Dioscorus.¹⁸

St. Dioscorus and Eutyches: Eutyches was an archimandrite and the abbot of a monastery in Constantinople with about three hundred monks under his guidance. He was an old ascetic, gifted with eloquence of speech; but he was not a true theologian. He played a significant role in the split that occurred in the Church in the fifth century. Eutyches enjoyed great fame throughout the see of Constantinople: within monastic circles, the imperial court, and among the people. This was due to his intelligence, eloquence, his ascetic life, and his close relationship with the emperor, especially through his relative Chrysaphius, the chief minister.

In reality, Eutyches represented neither Alexandrian theology nor Antiochian theology. His extreme zeal against the Nestorianism that was rife in this region, and his defense of the Alexandrian formula led him to another heresy: he fell into the error of saying that there were two natures before the union; but only one nature after it, for the divine nature absorbed the human nature, and the latter ceased to be.

It is not difficult for any scholar to discover the character of Eutyches and his theology by simply reading his responses during his trials at the councils of Ephesus in 448 and 449 A. D. He was not by nature a theologian and he was largely ignorant of the system of Alexandrian theology. He would sometimes use orthodox expressions that contradict his main ideas. Perhaps this was because his theological understanding was shaky, or perhaps he intended to deceive, or perhaps he feared losing his fame, position, or priesthood.

Eutyches’ appeal to the emperor and bishops: Leo, the bishop of Rome wrote to Eutyches, lauding his zeal in defending against Nestorian dualism. At the same time, he wrote to Flavian, urging him to be kind to Eutyches. But Leo later changed his mind, perhaps when he heard that the emperor had written to St. Dioscorus, the pope of Alexandria, inviting him to convene a council to discuss this matter. Leo, who had no real knowledge of the nature of the conflict between Alexandrian and Antiochian Christology, sent his tome (letter) to Constantinople on June 13, 449 A. D.; not to reconcile the parties, but to undermine the position of the Alexandrian theologians.

The Second Council of Ephesus in 449 A. D.: Emperor Theodosius II, who convened the council, appointed Dioscorus to preside over the council, and appointed Juvenal of Jerusalem and Thalassius of Caesarea in Cappadocia to co-preside with him.

St. Dioscorus did not say one word against Rome from the beginning of the council to its end. Leo, in his letters, refers to our pope as the “Egyptian Murderer” and the “Teacher of Satan’s Falsehoods” who always tries his best to spread blasphemy against his brethren. We will see how Anatolius of Constantinople and others refused to call the Pope of Alexandria a heretic.

Some scholars have been in the habit of attributing violence to the Alexandrian fathers and theologians, even to Athanasius and Cyril.

St. Dioscorus and the Council of Chalcedon: although the Council of Chalcedon was thought to have been convened to try Eutyches, in the event, its attention turned to attacking Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria, rather than the old monk. Eutyches was not even present at the council, having been exiled to north Syria before the council met.

In fact, Dioscorus was condemned not because of any theological heresy, but due to political circumstances which dominated this council.

The Greek Professor Fr. Romanides says, “Dioscorus was considered quite orthodox in his faith by such leading Fathers of the Council of Chalcedon as those represented by Anatolius of Constantinople.”¹⁹ Metropolitan Methodios of Aksum also says, “Information, which we possess, does not depict Dioscorus as a heretic. From available information it is obvious that he was a good man and even Bishop Leo himself tried to take him to his side … Likewise Emperor Theodosius in a letter to Dioscorus calls him a man who radiates the Grace of God, a humble man and of orthodox faith.

“Several times in the course of the Council Patriarch Dioscorus declared his faith. He was not condemned because he was heretical but because he refused to communicate with Leo, the Archbishop, and because he refused to come to the Council although he was invited to do so three times.

“This evidence is sufficient for us to look for other reasons for Dioscorus’ condemnation. Rome was annoyed by the extraordinary vitality of the Church of Alexandria and its active Patriarch.”²⁰

The emperor accepted the council’s decision and exiled Pope Dioscorus to the island of Gangra in Asia Minor. He remained in exile for five years, occupying his time in guiding the lost and healing the sick. He departed to the glorious realm in the year 457 A. D.

What impact did the Council of Chalcedon have on the catechism of the Church?

a. The rise of strong theologians, such as Philoxenus of Mabbug, Pope Timothy, and the

great teacher St. Severus of Antioch, who preserved the orthodoxy of the faith. Fr.

Meyendorff says of them that there was no theologian on the Chalcedonian side who could match them.

b. Because of this council, Antioch was deprived of its patriarch St. Severus who fled

and hid in Egypt for twenty years. Similarly, Pope Benjamin was forced to flee from Alexandria until the Arabs conquered Egypt, and they sent him a letter that assured him he was safe to return to his throne.

c. The Church of Alexandria suffered bitter persecution at the hands of their fellow

Christians, which forbade its congregation, servants, and churchmen to a great extent from carrying out their pastoral and teaching services, despite their best efforts to serve even as they fled the persecution of their brethren. The Melkites hunted down even the monks in their monasteries and the hermits, to employ all the tools of violence against them.

Stage 5: From the seventh to the ninth centuries.

Different Muslim governments employed different approaches. The more extreme used violence to expel Copts from government positions, confiscate the property of Copts, and force them to use the Arabic language, banning the use of any other language, whether spoken or written. They also carried out massacres against them as well as isolating them from the outside world, to the extent that the continued survival of the Copts until today was considered by Mrs. Butcher of Oxford University as one of the wonders of the world.

Such conditions impelled the Church to carefully preserve her doctrines, traditions, and rites from any deviations.

Stage 6: From the tenth to the fifteenth centuries.

It is in the tenth century A. D. that the first Coptic writings in the Arabic language emerge, authored by Severus Ibn al-Muqaffa, Bishop of Ashmunein. Some manuscripts attribute a book entitled, “The Precious Pearl in the Clarification of Religious Dogma,” to Ibn al- Muqaffa, while others attribute it to the bishop Boulos Al-Boushy (thirteenth century), whose writings were influenced by St. Athanasius. This book contains fifteens chapters on the doctrine of the Church. The author quotes the Holy Bible and excerpts from the Fathers to elucidate themes such as the Holy Trinity, the incarnation, and the Holy Spirit. In it, we find the name of Athanasius the Apostolic mentioned sixteen times with quotations from him. The theological importance of this valuable book is evident in the fact that it was copied several times in various languages, of which thirty-one manuscripts have survived and are preserved in the libraries of the world, both East and the West.

The thirteenth-century A. D. is considered the golden age of Arabic Coptic Christian literature. In this century, more authors emerged than any century before it, or the two centuries after it. This was due to the state of calmness, stability, and peace in which the Church lived at the end of the era of the Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1250), in which freedom of speech was permitted and in which opportunities for dialogue increased, whether in the political or religious arenas.

Among the most important Coptic authors whose various works contributed to the formation and enrichment of the Arabic Christian heritage is the bishop, Boulos Al-Boushy. He was nominated for the patriarchal throne after the departure of Pope Youannis VI, the seventy-fourth patriarch (1189–1216). He authored many fine works on biblical commentary, doctrine, apologetics, and on ecclesiastical and pastoral matters.²¹

Perhaps one of the most famous events of this period was the Crusades (between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries). Unfortunately, many Muslims assumed that the Copts supported the European Crusaders, since they bore the same sign of the cross; yet the Crusaders themselves treated the Copts as enemies because they were Egyptians.

Stage 7: From the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries.

Perhaps the most famous historical events of this period were:

a. The French campaign and British colonialism: Despite the brevity of the French

campaign (it lasted three years and eighteen days), it presented an offensive image of Christianity to both Muslims and Christians. Muslims did not trust Napoleon Bonaparte and felt that he deceived them by sending them a letter committing him to defend Islam. He also arrayed himself in Arabic clothes and his whole body trembled as he recited Islamic supplications. Also, Kléber renounced his Christian faith to marry a Muslim girl!

The prime goal of the campaign, as Bonaparte stated, was “to break the British hold over in the East.”

Some believe that this campaign helped develop modern Egypt. Napoleon Bonaparte created councils and agencies composed of the leading scientists, businessmen, and religious representatives to advise on public affairs. Also, Bonaparte was the first to introduce system of political representation in Egypt.

The French worked to improve Egypt’s capital. They built many wide well-designed roads in the city, planted trees by the sides of the roads, and required inhabitants to provide street illumination by night. They filled in Lake ‘Ezbekeya Lake and stopped any further burials in its cemetery, instead issuing an order that all burials must be at some distance from the city, for health reasons.

Napoleon came to Egypt with a group of scientists and thinkers to excavate its hidden monuments and study their unknown mysteries. This revived the interest of the

Egyptians themselves in this field. A violent upheaval occurred in the country which produced an independence movement whose features took form during the era of Mohammad Ali and came to maturity in the era of Ismael Pasha.

With regards to British colonization, there were many Coptic personalities who expended great efforts to express Coptic the patriotism of the Copts. As for the impact of both campaigns on the Coptic Catechism: Many French and British schools were founded; and as a result, many rich Coptic and Muslim families were able to speak French more proficiently than Arabic. In addition, government-run schools introduced the English language to the High school curriculum and many private companies started using English in addition to Arabic in their advertisements. The door was also opened for Catholic and Evangelical Protestant missionaries to enter Egypt. Some Coptic scholars rose to the challenge by writing expositions of Orthodox theology. In response to these attacks on the Church’s doctrines and rites, an apologetic theology was born.

b. Habib Girgis (1876–1951): A number of personalities, both lay and clergy, drove a

powerful reform movement. Among these, Archdeacon Habib Girgis stands out most prominently.

Habib Girgis was a thinker, scholar, theologian, author, and pioneer in the field of religious education. Born in ‘Ezbekeya, Cairo, he attended the Coptic school in Haret Elsakayeen. He was one of the first students to enroll at the Coptic Seminary in after it was reopened by Pope Cyril V in 1892 and he graduated in 1898. He was appointed as a lecturer in Theology there on May 8, 1899, at the young age of 23 years old; then Dean of the Seminary on September 14, 1918. He introduced evening classes at the seminary in 1945 to enable university graduates with work commitments to attend.

He was a renowned preacher, started the Sunday School movement and wrote its first curriculum, trained its teachers, and organized conferences for them. He was chosen to be the general secretary of the Sunday School Committee in 1927. He published Al Karma (The Vine), a weekly magazine (1904–1930). He was very well respected and trusted by four patriarchs: Pope Cyril V (the 112^th Patriarch); Pope Youannis XIX (the 113^th Patriarch); Pope Macarius III (the 114^th Patriarch); and Pope Yousab II (the 115^th Patriarch). He acted as an adviser to the patriarchs, especially Pope Cyril V. He was nominated to become a bishop on three different occasions, and once, to become the pope.

He was a member of the Holy Synod due to his experience as an Archdeacon and his long service in the areas of education and religious instruction. He succeeded in introducing the teaching of Christian religion to Christians in government schools.

He published twenty-six books and many hymns. He also prepared books for children and prayers for different occasions. One of his books was: “Practical Reforms in the

Orthodox Church.” Pope Cyril V urged his metropolitans and bishops to select the priests they ordain for their dioceses from among the graduates of the seminary.

Stage 8: From the revolution of July 23, 1952.

God allowed for this period to be full of hardships that we may see God's work. These were among its events:

a. At the beginning of Gamal Abd-El Nasser's reign as president, he persecuted the

Christians. So, His Holiness Pope Cyril VI went to the presidential palace, but the president refused to meet him. But God intervened, and the two developed an amazing friendship. The president would publicly address him as “my father” with all love and humility until the day he died.

b. Pope Cyril VI was by character simple, possessed of the spirit of worship and piety.

The God of glory used him for the salvation of many, both inside and outside of Egypt. Fr. Daniel Fanous, the Dean of St Cyril‘s Theological College in Sydney, Australia, wrote his PhD thesis on this saint and his theology, and it has been published as a book.²²

c. One month after Pope Shenouda III was placed under house arrest at a monastery,

and the imprisonment of seven bishops, a khouri episkopos, twenty four priests, and just under one hundred laymen, a Muslim extremists assassinated President Anwar Sadat. Those imprisoned had charges laid against them in preparation for their trials. The congregation voiced their love for their Church and their esteem for those who had been imprisoned.

d. During the last years of the reign of President Hosni Mubarak, there was not a week

that went by without a terrorist attack on the Church. An agency that monitors the persecution of Christians all over the world ranked Egypt at the top of its list of countries that persecute Christians. However, the powerful hand of God was manifest as Mubarak’s throne was taken away from him.

e. Morsi then came to power and imagined could destroy the Church; but he was ousted

and imprisoned after only one year since becoming president.

The leaders of the Church were often accused of treason against their country simply because they participated in international Christian conferences.

In brief, the Church never enjoyed freedom to move; but God has always preserved her orthodox faith, that she might work with all her strength to witness to divine truth.

Stage 9: The beginning of the immigration movement and spread of the Copts around the world since 1968.

As a result of the suffering experienced by the Copts during the previous period, many were impelled to immigrate to America, Canada, Australia, and Europe. I must confess personally that my colleagues in the Church and I considered immigration to be a way of escaping from carrying the cross. However, Pope Cyril VI often stated that these families and immigrants were sent by God to the diaspora to spread the gospel of Christ. There are many needs for the Church to fulfill, which I have spoken about on more than one occasion, especially in especially in my book, “The Memoirs of a Priest in the Land of the Diaspora” in two volumes. Now, after over half a century of the immigration movement, I feel the need to record “The Catechism of the Orthodox Church.”

Fr. Tadros Yacoub Malaty